The Battle of Dover Strait that occurred on 26–27 October 1916 was a naval battle of the First World War between Great Britain and the German Empire. Ken Curtis, Actor: Gunsmoke. Considering the kind of scruffy, backwoods, uneducated, Deep-South hillbilly types he played, many people would be surprised to hear that. Feature Articles - The Easter Rising, Dublin 1916. Background and Long-Term Causes. The English occupation of Ireland, which began in 1169, had always been resisted. Highway Existence. Highway Existence: - 1. Years and Beyond. A peaceful campaign of progress and reform: The Federal Highway Administration at 1.
Richard F. Weingroff. On October 3, 1. 99. Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) celebrated 1. General Roy Stone, the agency's first head, called the movement to improve the Nation's roads a . Eisenhower System of Interstate and Defense Highways is the most visible result, but the peaceful campaign continues as the FHWA adapts to the intermodal demands of the 1. Origins. In the second half of the 1. In the 1. 88. 0s, however, the growing popularity of a new mode of transportation, the . The speed and individual mobility afforded by the bicycle created a nationwide craze - - complete with bicycle clubs, clothes, races, and touring guides - - for what appeared to be the next important mode of transportation. With the introduction of the . By 1. 89. 0, over one million bicycles were being manufactured in the country each year. The biggest problem was that, outside the cities, the nation's bad roads made bicycling a laborious, dangerous process. As one contemporary slogan put it, the roads were, . Bicycle groups, led by the League of American Wheelmen (L. A. W.), and manufacturers, led by Col. Albert Pope, worked at the federal, state, and local level to secure road improvement legislation. To build support for the movement, the bicycle groups tried to interest the farmers and their state and national organizations. The message was that bad roads, by increasing transportation expenditures, cost more than good roads. But the farmers weren't interested; they didn't want to be taxed to benefit, as they saw it, the city . As a result, the Good Roads Movement was dominated by bicycle interests until the late 1. General Stone, a Civil War hero and civil engineer, was one of the leaders of the movement, which rallied around a bill he had drafted in 1. Congress. The bill called for creation of a two- year National Highway Commission to formulate plans for a national school of roads and bridges, to collect and disseminate information, and to prepare a comprehensive road exhibit for the Chicago World's Columbian Exposition, which was to open in April 1. The measure passed the Senate, but despite intense lobbying by Stone, the L. A. W., and other groups, failed in the House of Representatives. In January 1. 89. Representatives Allan Durburow of Illinois and Clarke Lewis of Mississippi succeeded in adding a provision to the Agriculture Appropriation Act of 1. The Congress approved the act on March 3, and it was signed by President Benjamin Harrison that same day, his last in office. Incoming President Grover Cleveland, beginning his second nonconsecutive term on March 4, chose J. Sterling Morton to be Secretary of Agriculture. Morton, a former secretary and acting governor of the Nebraska Territory and the founder of Arbor Day, adhered to principles of rigid economy and strict conservatism. His initiation of the road inquiry reflected these principles. On October 3, 1. 89. General Stone, who had been chosen special agent and engineer for road inquiry. This letter is the charter for the new Office of Road Inquiry (ORI), the FHWA's first predecessor. After enunciating the statutory goals of the Appropriations Act, Morton reminded Stone that the work . Responses in hand, Stone completed the ORI's first bulletin by December 4, 1. State Laws Relating to the Management of Roads. Eight more bulletins, most based on the new information, were released by the start of the next fiscal year (FY) in July 1. The ORI's annual budget was small ($1. Stone and his small staff of full- and part- time employees made the most of it. In addition to publishing technical and promotional literature, Stone was a popular speaker at good roads conventions, helped states draft road legislation, and initiated tests of road materials. He also cooperated with the Post Office Department in its experiments with Rural Free Delivery (RFD), begun in 1. Good Roads Movement. One of Stone's most enduring successes was the object lesson road program, begun in 1. The idea, borrowed from Massachusetts, was to build short stretches of road to educate local engineers and, on the theory that . Federal engineers or part- time special agents directed the work, but equipment was donated and most of the remaining cost was paid by the sponsors. The program was one of the ORI's most popular, with demand far exceeding the agency's resources. On October 1. 3, 1. General Stone resigned. By then, largely through his efforts, the ORI had become the recognized national leader of the Good Roads Movement. Historian Bruce Seely summarized Stone's accomplishments, as well as the stamp he left on the agency he founded: In the end, he pioneered three enduring patterns of activity for the ORI: build a reputation for technical knowledge, promote the gospel of good roads, and utilize cooperation to reach those goals. The first fulfilled the office's mandate from Congress, and the second grew from the promotional goals of the Wheelmen, but the third was Stone's hallmark, even if it was necessitated by a small budget. General Stone died on August 5, 1. Arlington National Cemetery. Turning Point: Birth of the Federal- aid Highway Program. In 1. 89. 9, Martin Dodge, a former president of the Ohio State Highway Commission, was appointed director of the ORI, which was renamed the Office of Public Road Inquiries (OPRI). He expanded the promotional and technical activities of the agency, including cooperating with railroad companies and good roads promotional groups as a sponsor of Good Roads Trains. The trains toured the country from 1. In an economy move, Dodge established the agency's first field structure to continue the popular object lesson road program and keep in touch with local developments. He divided the country into four divisions, with a full- time special agent in charge of the Eastern Division and part- time special agents for the Southern, Middle, and Western Divisions. To head the Eastern Division, Dodge chose Logan W. Page, a geologist who in 1. OPRI's laboratory for testing road materials in the Department of Agriculture's Bureau of Chemistry. In addition, Dodge launched the first inventory of all rural roads in the United States. Begun in 1. 90. 4, the survey required over 6. Of 3,4. 62,5. 22 km (2,1. Dodge also pushed the OPRI into its next incarnation by helping to persuade Congress to increase the budget to $3. Department of Agriculture. The Agriculture Appropriation Act of 1. President Theodore Roosevelt on March 3, 1. OPRI with Page's Division of Tests to form the Office of Public Roads (OPR). The annual budget was $5. OPR was authorized to include 1. The act also provided that the director of the OPR . As Seely has shown, Page moved the OPR into the forefront of the Progressive movement, which put its faith in an . He also entered into a formal agreement with the Post Office Department to make OPR engineers available to inspect proposed RFD routes. As with Page's predecessors, he believed in cooperation, that working with, rather than dictating to, the highway community would get the best results. When the state highway agencies decided to form their own organization, Page was present at the creation of the American Association of State Highway Officials (AASHO) in December 1. Although the OPR had provided advice on forest trails since 1. Page worked out a formal agreement with the Forest Service, also part of the Department of Agriculture, in 1. To handle this work, Page established a Division of National Park and Forest Roads in 1. By this time, the growth in automobile travel had increased pressure on the federal government to provide funds for road building outside federal reserves. The issue wasn't whether the federal role would expand - - the issue was how. The key issues were whether the federal government would build the roads or provide aid to states or counties; whether the emphasis would be on getting the farmer out of the mud or building long- distance roads; and how much aid would be provided. To help find answers, the Post Office Appropriation Bill for FY 1. OPR administered in cooperation with states and counties. From the standpoint of road improvement, the experimental program had limited success, but it provided valuable experience that helped shape the OPR's mission. The most important lesson was that cooperating with the nation's 3,0. In December 1. 91. AASHO ratified a federal- aid bill that largely reflected Page's Progressive views, including his preference for a federal program of aid to technically proficient state highway agencies. The bill was introduced by Senator J. Bankhead of Alabama, and Page and the OPR and Rural Engineering (OPRRE), as the OPR had been renamed in 1. Capitol Hill in 1. The final version of the Bankhead Bill, modified but still reflecting Page's views, was signed into law by President Woodrow Wilson on July 1. Federal- aid Highway Program. The Federal Aid Road Act of 1. Funding was restricted to rural post roads and the federal share of project costs was 5. The states would prepare the plans and control construction and maintenance, subject to federal approval and inspection. The act also authorized $1. Regulations implementing the new law were drafted, and Page invited the states to Washington for an August 1. The day before, AASHO members met at the Raleigh Hotel to prepare their suggestions. On Wednesday, August 1. National Museum - - today's Smithsonian Museum of Natural History - - with 3. Virtually all of the states' suggestions were adopted. The regulations were issued September 1, 1. Turning Point: Clarification of the Federal- aid Highway Program. To accommodate the new program, Page established the agency's first formal field organization of 1. He also reorganized the Washington headquarters, grouping all existing divisions into the Engineering Branch and the Management and Economics Branch, and providing for two general inspectors who reported directly to him.
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